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A manually operated calculating device that represents numbers with movable counters or beads arranged according to numerical values.

Absolute zero is the zero point of thermodynamic temperature, equal to 0 kelvin or −273.15 °C, at which thermal excitation reaches its limiting minimum.

Abstract algebra studies algebraic structures and the maps between them, emphasizing general properties of operations rather than particular calculations.

A chemical reaction involving proton transfer between an acid and a base, or electron-pair donation and acceptance under the broader Lewis definition.

Action is a scalar functional of a system’s history whose stationary values determine classical dynamics and whose phase governs quantum path integrals.

An action potential is a brief, regenerative change in membrane voltage that transmits signals in electrically excitable cells.

Activation energy quantifies the temperature dependence of a reaction rate constant and is commonly interpreted as an energy barrier to chemical transformation.

An activity coefficient is a dimensionless factor that expresses how a component’s thermodynamic activity differs from its normalized concentration or mole fraction.

Adam is a gradient-based optimization algorithm that combines momentum with adaptive, coordinate-wise scaling based on estimates of gradient moments.

Adaptation is evolutionary adjustment to an environment, or a trait shaped by selection; more broadly, it denotes adjustment to changing conditions.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide that transfers chemical energy to power cellular processes and also serves as a precursor for RNA synthesis.

An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic change during which no heat is transferred between a system and its surroundings.